Is all work the same? Performance after accumulated work of differing intensities in male professional cyclists.

OBJECTIVES: Although the ability to attenuate power output (PO) declines after accumulated work (i.e., 'durability') is increasingly recognized as a major determinant of cycling performance, the potential role of the intensity of the previous work is unclear. We assessed the effect of work-matched levels of accumulated work at different intensities on performance in male professional cyclists. DESIGN: Observational field-based study. METHODS: PO data was registered in 17 cyclists during a competition season, and the critical power (CP) was repeatedly determined every 4 weeks from training sessions and competitions. Participants' maximum mean power (MMP) for different durations (5 s, 5 min, 10 min, and 20 min) and the CP were determined under 'fresh' conditions (0 kJ·kg-1) and after varying levels of accumulated work (2.5, 5.0 and 7.5 kJ·kg-1) at intensities below and above the CP. RESULTS: A significant decline was found for all MMP values following all levels of accumulated work above the CP (-4.0 %, -1.7 %, -1.8 %, and -3.2 % for 30s, 5 min, 10 min and 20 min-MMP, respectively; all p < 0.001), versus no change after any level of accumulated work below the CP (all p > 0.05). Similar results were observed for the CP, which decreased after all levels of accumulated work above (-2.2 %, -6.1 %, and -16.2 %, after 2.5, 5.0 and 7.5 kJ·kg-1, p < 0.001) but not below this indicator (p > 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: In male professional cyclists, accumulated work above the CP impairs performance compared with work-matched, albeit less intense efforts. This raises concerns on the use of mechanical work per se as a single fatigue/stress indicator in these athletes.

The Influence of High-Intensity Work on the Record Power Profile of Under-23, Pro Team, and World Tour Cyclists.

BACKGROUND: Durability (ie, the ability to attenuate the decline in performance after accumulated work) has been identified as a performance determinant in elite cyclists. The aim of the present study was to compare durability in elite cyclists of various performance levels, particularly after high-intensity work, referred to as "high-intensity durability." METHODS: Forty-nine (N = 49) male road cyclists were categorized as either under 23 years of age (U23) (N = 11), Pro Team (N = 13), or World Tour (N = 24). The participants' critical power (CP) was assessed during the preseason. Thereafter, the participants' maximum mean power (MMP) values were determined for efforts of different durations (from 5 s to 30 min) after different levels of accumulated work above CP (from 0 to 7.5 kJ·kg-1). RESULTS: U23 cyclists showed a significant reduction of all relative MMP values for durations ≥1 minute after ≥5 kJ·kg-1 above CP compared with the "fresh" state (0 kJ·kg-1), whereas in Pro Team and World Tour cyclists, a significant reduction was not observed until 7.5 kJ·kg-1 above CP. In the "fresh" state, both Pro Team and particularly World Tour cyclists attained higher MMP values for efforts ≥10 minutes than U23 riders. However, more differences emerged with greater previous work levels, and indeed after 7.5 kJ·kg-1 above CP World Tour cyclists attained higher MMP values than both U23 and Pro Team cyclists for most efforts (≥30 s). CONCLUSION: Pro Team and particularly World Tour cyclists tolerate greater levels of accumulated work at high intensity, which might support the importance of high-intensity durability for performance.

An improved methodology for estimating critical power from mean maximal power output data.

The aim of this study was to determine if Critical Power (CP) and W' can be estimated from mean maximal power output (MMP) data collected in cycling races. Data were collected from 13 under 23 professional cyclists (mean ± SD; age, 19.5 ± 1.1 y; body mass, 66.3 ± 5.0 kg; height, 180.0 ± 5.0 cm; CP, 5.7 ± 0.3 W · kg-1). Participants conducted a CP test in the field to determine CPTest and W'Test. MMP data were then collected in races for the subsequent 90 days. CP and W' were estimated from MMP values in two ways, using fixed MMP durations, 2, 5 and 12 min (CPFixed and W'Fixed), and via a novel filtering of second-by-second MMP data (CPFiltered and W'Filtered). CPFixed and CPFiltered were not significantly different from CPTest (Mean Difference (MD) 5 W and 7 W, respectively, p > 0.05). W'Fixed and W'Filtered were not significantly different from W'Test (MD 2.68 kJ and 0.89 kJ, respectively, p > 0.05). CPFixed and CPFiltered correlated significantly with CPTest (r = 0.872 and 0.922, respectively, p < 0.0001 for both). Neither W'Fixed nor W'Filtered correlated significantly with W'Test (p > 0.05). Both CPFixed and CPFiltered provide valid estimates of CPTest.; however, CPFiltered provides a better estimate.

Physiological Characteristics of Competitive Male Junior Cyclists Transitioning to the Under-23 Level: A Retrospective Comparative Study.

PURPOSE: The purpose of the current investigation was to retrospectively assess possible differences in physiological performance characteristics between junior cyclists signing a contract with an under-23 (U23) development team versus those failing to sign such a contract. METHODS: Twenty-five male junior cyclists (age: 18.1 [0.7] y, stature: 181.9 [6.0] cm, body mass: 69.1 [7.9] kg, peak oxygen uptake: 71.3 [6.2] mL·min-1·kg-1) were assigned to this investigation. Between September and October of the last year in the junior category, each cyclist performed a ramp incremental exercise test to determine certain physiological performance characteristics. Subsequently, participants were divided in 2 groups: (1) those signing a contract with a U23 development team (JUNIORU23) and (2) those failing to sign such a contract (JUNIORNON-U23). Unpaired t tests were used to assess possible between-groups differences in physiological performance characteristics. The level of statistical significance was set at P < .05 two tailed. RESULTS: No significant between-groups differences in submaximal (ie, gas exchange threshold, respiratory compensation point) and maximal physiological performance characteristics (ie, peak work rate, peak oxygen uptake) expressed in absolute values (ie, L·min-1, W) were observed (P > .05). However, significant between-groups differences were observed when physiological performance characteristics were expressed relative to the cyclists' body weights (P < .05). CONCLUSIONS: The current investigation showed that junior cyclists stepping up to a U23 development team might be retrospectively differentiated from junior cyclists not stepping up based on certain physiological performance characteristics, which might inform practitioners and/or federations working with young cyclists during the long-term athletic development process.

Alterations in aerobic fitness and muscle deoxygenation during ramp incremental exercise in trained youth cyclists: a ~3-year longitudinal study.

Alterations of aerobic fitness and muscle deoxygenation during a ramp incremental exercise test (GXT) were assessed on two occasions within a time-frame of 2.9 ± 0.1y in competitive youth cyclists. Nine cyclists (age, 14.5 ± 1.1y; peak oxygen uptake (V˙O2peak), 62.6 ± 4.2 mL.min-1.kg-1) participated in this investigation. V˙O2peak, the gas exchange threshold (GET) and the respiratory compensation point (RCP), as well as the muscle deoxygenation response pattern were determined during a GXT using open circuit spirometry and near-infrared spectroscopy, respectively. T-tests and Pearson's correlations were used to assess effects of time on the dependent variables and relationships between changes of parameter estimates of aerobic fitness and the muscle deoxygenation response, respectively. Workrate and metabolic rate at GET (33 ± 20 and 42 ± 23%) and RCP (36 ± 20 and 40 ± 22%), and V˙O2peak (30 ± 18%) significantly increased throughout the study (P < 0.05). The muscle deoxygenation response showed a significant rightward shift from occasion one to two (P < 0.05). Alterations in the workrate/metabolic rate at RCP, and V˙O2peak, were correlated with alterations of the muscle deoxygenation response (R = 0.71-0.89, P < 0.05). Together, this is thought to indicate a superior muscle perfusion within the tissue of interrogation at the same metabolic rate on occasion two vs. one, which partially contributed to the improved aerobic fitness in the cyclists herein.

Predictors of cycling performance success: Traditional approaches and a novel method to assess performance capacity in U23 road cyclists.

OBJECTIVES: This study aimed to investigate predictors of cycling performance in U23 cyclists by comparing traditional approaches to a novel method - the compound score. Thirty male U23 cyclists (N = 30, age 20.1 ±â€¯1.1 yrs, body mass 69.0 ±â€¯6.9 kg, height 182.6 ±â€¯6.2 cm, V̇O2max 73.8 ±â€¯2.5 mL·kg-1·min-1) participated in this study. DESIGN: Power output information was derived from laboratory and field-testing during pre-season and mean maximal power outputs (MMP) from racing season. Absolute and relative 5-min MMP, 5-min MMP after 2000 kJ (MMP2000 kJ), allometric scaling and the compound score were compared to the race score and podium (top 3) performance during a competitive season. METHODS: Positive and negative predictive values were calculated for all significant performance variables for the likelihood of a podium performance. RESULTS: The absolute 5-min MMP of the field test revealed the highest negative predictive capacity (82.4%, p = 0.012) for a podium performance. The compound score of the 5-min MMP2000 kJ demonstrated the highest positive and average predictive capacity (83.3%, 78.0%, p = 0.007 - respectively). The multi-linear regression analysis revealed a significant predictive capacity between performance variables and the race score (R2 = 0.55, p = 0.015). CONCLUSIONS: Collectively the results of the present study reveal that the compound score, alongside absolute power, was able to predict the highest positive and average likelihood for a podium performance. These findings can help to better understand performance capacity from field data to predict future cycling success.

Influence of Torque and Cadence on Power Output Production in Cyclists.

PURPOSE: No information is available on the torque/cadence relationship in road cyclists. We aimed to establish whether this relationship differs between cyclists of different performance levels or team roles. METHODS: Mean maximal power (MMP) output data from 177 riders were obtained from 2012 to 2021 from training and competitions. Cyclists were categorized according to their performance level (world-tour [WT, n = 68], procontinental [PC, n = 63], or under 23 [U23, n = 46]) and team role (time trialists [n = 12], all-rounders [n = 94], climbers [n = 64], or team leaders [n = 7]). RESULTS: A significant interaction effect was found for absolute and relative MMP (P < .001), with higher values in PC than WT for short (5-60 s) efforts and the opposite trend for longer durations. MMP was also greater in PC than in U23 for short efforts (30-60 s), with WT and PC attaining higher MMP than U23 for longer bouts (5-60 min). A significant interaction effect was found for cadence (P = .007, but with no post hoc differences) and absolute (P = .010) and relative torque (P = .002), with PC and WT showing significantly higher torque (all P < .05) than U23 for 5- to 60-minute efforts, yet with no differences between the former 2 performance levels. No interaction effect between team roles was found for cadence (P = .185) or relative torque (P = .559), but a significant interaction effect was found for absolute torque (P < .001), with all-rounders attaining significantly higher values than climbers for 5-second to 5-minute efforts. CONCLUSIONS: Differences in MMP between cycling performance levels and rider types are dependent on torque rather than cadence, which might support the role of torque development in performance.

The relationship between training characteristics and durability in professional cyclists across a competitive season.

This study investigated the influence of training characteristics on the fatigued power profile in professional cyclists. Data was collected from 30 under 23 professional cyclists (age: 20.1 ± 1.1 years, body mass: 69 ± 6.9 kg, height: 182.6 ± 6.2 cm, V˙O2max: 73.8 ± 2.5 mL·kg-1·min-1, CP: 5.48 ± 0.38 W·kg-1, W´: 17.83 ± 3.57 kJ) across a competitive season and collated in to 3 periods: early-, mid- and late-season. Two power profiles (fresh and fatigued) were created from absolute (W) and relative (W·kg-1) 2-, 5-, and 12-min maximal mean power outputs. The fresh power profile consisted exclusively of power output values produced prior to 2000 kJ work (2MMPfresh, 5MMPfresh and 12MMPfresh) while the fatigued power profile consisted of power output values produced exclusively post 2000 kJ (2MMPfatigue 5MMPfatigue and 12MMPfatigue). Training characteristics were analysed to assess their influence on the power profiles. Absolute 5MMPfatigue, 12MMPfatigue and relative 12MMPfatigue were significantly lower in late-season compared with early- and mid-season (p < 0.05). The difference in absolute 12MMPfresh and 12MMPfatigue was significantly greater in late than in early- and mid-season. A significant relationship was found between training time below the first ventilatory threshold (Time < VT1) and improvements in absolute and relative 2MMPfatigue (r = 0.43 p = 0.018 and r = 0.376 p = 0.04 respectively); and between a shift towards a polarized training intensity distribution and improvements in absolute and relative 12MMPfatigue (r = 0.414 p = 0.023 for both) between subsequent periods. In conclusion, there is greater variability in the fatigue power profile across a competitive season than the fresh power profile.HighlightsThe fatigued power profile varies throughout a competitive seasonThe difference between the fresh and fatigued power profiles is not fixed across a competitive seasonA tendency towards a polarized training intensity distribution is associated with an improvement in the fatigue power profile.

The Relationship between Physiological Characteristics and Durability in Male Professional Cyclists.

PURPOSE: This study aimed to determine if durability can be predicted from laboratory measures in a professional cycling population. METHODS: Data were collected from 10 professional cyclists (age = 19.2 ± 0.8 yr, body mass = 70.4 ± 5.5 kg, height = 182.9 ± 4.0 cm, body mass index = 21.0 ± 1.3 kg·m -2 , V̇O 2max = 74.4 ± 4.8 mL·kg -1 ·min -1 , critical power [CP] = 5.6 ± 0.6 W·kg -1 , W' = 23.7 ± 5.4 kJ). Participants completed a laboratory test and a CP test on two occasions. The second occasion was preceded by a novel fatiguing protocol, which consisted of five bouts of 8-min of exercise at 105%-110% of CP. CP in a fatigued state was expressed as a percentage of the fresh CP and coined delta CP (∆CP). The Pearson product correlation analysis was conducted to determine the relationship between laboratory-based measures and ∆CP. RESULTS: Significant positive relationships were found between ∆CP and relative peak power output ( r = 0.891, P < 0.001), relative maximum oxygen uptake ( r = 0.835, P = 0.003), relative power output at the second ventilatory threshold ( r = 0.738, P = 0.015), power output at the first ventilatory threshold ( r = 0.748, P = 0.013) and relative power output at the first ventilatory threshold ( r = 0.826, P = 0.003), gross efficiency at 300 W ( r = 0.869, P = 0.001), and at 200 W ( r = 0.792, P = 0.006). Significant negative relationships were found between ∆CP and carbohydrate oxidation at 200 W ( r = -0.702, P = 0.024). A multiple linear regression demonstrated that ∆CP can be predicted from laboratory measures ( R2 = 0.96-0.98, P < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: These findings demonstrate the physiological determinants of durability in a professional cycling population.

Elite versus non-elite cyclist - Stepping up to the international/elite ranks from U23 cycling.

This study investigated the physiological, performance and training characteristics of U23 cyclists and assessed the requirements of stepping up to the elite/international ranks. Twenty highly trained U23 cyclists (age, 22.1 ± 0.8 years; body mass, 69.1 ± 6.8 kg; VO2max, 76.1 ± 3.9 ml·kg-1·min-1) participated in this study. The cyclists were a posteriori divided into two groups based on whether or not they stepped up to elite/international level cycling (U23ELITE vs. U23NON-ELITE). Physiological, performance and training and racing characteristics were determined and compared between groups. U23ELITE demonstrated higher absolute peak power output (p = .016), 2 min (p = .026) 5 min (p = .042) and 12 min (p ≤ .001) power output as well as higher absolute critical power (p = .002). Further, U23ELITE recorded more accumulated hours (p ≤ .001), covered distance (p ≤ .001), climbing metres (p ≤ .001), total sessions (p ≤ .001), total work (p ≤ .001) and scored more UCI points (p ≤ .001). These findings indicate that U23ELITE substantially differed from U23NON-ELITE regarding physiological, performance and training and racing characteristics derived from laboratory and field. These variables should be considered by practitioners supporting young cyclists throughout their development towards the elite/international ranks.

Differences in Training Characteristics Between Junior, Under 23 and Professional Cyclists.

The aim was to compare the training characteristics of junior, under 23 and professional road cyclists. Training data collected during the 2019 competitive season of thirty male cyclists, divided into three age-related categories (JUN; U23; PRO), were retrospectively analyzed for training characteristics, external and internal training load. Higher duration per training session were observed in PRO (2.6±0.3 h) compared to both U23 (2.2±0.3 h; P<0.001) and JUN (2.0±0.2 h; P<0.001). Elevation gain per distance was higher in PRO (13.8±1.9 m·km-1) compared to U23 (10.6±0.9 m·km-1; P=0.001) and JUN (6.7±0.3 m·km-1; P<0.001), and in U23 compared to JUN (P<0.001). Annual total work was lower in JUN (3694±467 kJ·kg-1) compared to U23 (5268±746 kJ·kg-1; P=0.001) and PRO (5759±1103 kJ·kg-1; P<0.001). eTRIMP per hour was higher in JUN (151±40) compared to both U23 (115±23; P=0.003) and PRO (112±22; P=0.013). JUN spent more training time at medium and high heart rate intensity zones compared to U23 and PRO (P<0.05).

Power Road-Derived Physical Performance Parameters in Junior, Under-23, and Professional Road Cycling Climbers.

PURPOSE: To investigate the relationship of field-derived power and physical performance parameters with competition success in road cycling climbing specialists of age-related categories and to explore cross-sectional differences between high-ranked (HIGHR) climbing specialists of each category. METHODS: Fifty-three male climbers participated in this study (junior [JUN], n = 15; under 23 [U23], n = 21; professional [PRO], n = 17). Training and racing data collected during the 2016-19 competitive seasons were retrospectively analyzed for record power outputs (RPOs) and RPOs after prior accumulated work. RESULTS: In JUN, body mass, absolute RPOs, and relative RPOs were higher in HIGHR compared with low ranked (d = 0.97-2.20, large; P = .097-.001); in U23 and PRO, the percentage decrease in RPOs after 20, 30, 40, and 50 kJ·kg-1 was less in HIGHR compared with low ranked (d = 0.77-1.74, moderate-large; P = .096-.004). JUN HIGHR presented lower absolute and relative RPO-20 min (ηp2=.34-.38, large; P = .099-.001) and higher percentage decrease in RPOs after prior accumulated work compared with U23 and PRO HIGHR (ηp2=.28-.68, large; P = .060-.001); percentage decrease in RPOs after prior accumulated work was the only parameter differentiating U23 and PRO HIGHR, with PRO declining less in relative RPO-1 min, RPO-5 min, and RPO-20 min after 20 to 50 kJ·kg-1 (ηp2=.28-.68, large; P = .090-.001). CONCLUSIONS: Superior absolute and relative RPOs characterize HIGHR JUN climbing specialists. Superior fatigue resistance differentiates HIGHR U23 and PRO climbers compared with low ranked, as well as PRO versus U23 climbers.

Effects of Flat and Uphill Cycling on the Power-duration Relationship.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of flat and uphill cycling on critical power and the work available above critical power. Thirteen well-trained endurance athletes performed three prediction trials of 10-, 4- and 1-min in both flat (0.6%) and uphill (9.8%) cycling conditions on two separate days. Critical power and the work available above critical power were estimated using various mathematical models. The best individual fit was used for further statistical analyses. Paired t-tests and Bland-Altman plots with 95% limits of agreement were applied to compare power output and parameter estimates between cycling conditions. Power output during the 10- and 4-min prediction trial and power output at critical power were not significantly affected by test conditions (all at p>0.05), but the limits of agreement between flat and uphill cycling power output and critical power estimates are too large to consider both conditions as equivalent. However, power output during the 1-min prediction trial and the work available above critical power were significantly higher during uphill compared to flat cycling (p<0.05). The results of this investigation indicate that gradient affects cycling time-trial performance, power output at critical power, and the amount of work available above critical power.

Cross-Sectional Differences in Race Demands Between Junior, Under 23, and Professional Road Cyclists.

PURPOSE: To compare the race demands of junior (JUN), under 23 (U23), and professional (PRO) road cyclists. METHODS: Thirty male cyclists, divided into 3 age-related categories (JUN, n = 10; U23, n = 10; and PRO, n = 10), participated in this study. Race data collected during the 2019 competitive season were retrospectively analyzed for race characteristics, external, and internal competition load. RESULTS: Higher annual and per race duration, distance, elevation gain, Edward's training impulse, total work, and work per hour were observed in PRO versus U23 and JUN, and U23 versus JUN (P < .01). PRO and U23 recorded higher mean maximal power (RPOs) between 5 and 180 minutes compared with JUN (P < .01). Edward's training impulse per hour was higher in JUN than PRO and U23 (P < .01). Accordingly, JUN spent a higher percentage of racing time in high internal intensity zones compared with U23 and PRO, while these 2 categories spent more time at low internal intensity zones (P < .01). CONCLUSIONS: JUN races were shorter and included less elevation gain per distance unit compared to U23 and PRO races, but more internally demanding. JUN produced less power output in the moderate-, heavy-, and severe-intensity exercise domains compared with U23 and PRO (RPOs: 5-180 min). U23 and PRO races presented similar work demands per hour and RPOs, but PRO races were longer than U23.

Climbing Performance in U23 and Professional Cyclists during a Multi-stage Race.

The aim of this study was to analyze climbing performance across two editions of a professional multistage race, and assess the influence of climb category, prior workload, and intensity measures on climbing performance in U23 and professional cyclists. Nine U23 cyclists (age 20.8±0.9 years) and 8 professional cyclists (28.1±3.2 years) participated in this study. Data were divided into four types: overall race performance, climb category, climbing performance metrics (power output, ascent velocity, speed), and workload and intensity measures. Differences in performance metrics and workload and intensity measures between groups were investigated. Power output, ascent velocity, speed were higher in professionals than U23 cyclists for Cat 1 and Cat 2 (p≤0.001-0.016). Workload and intensity measures (Worktotal, Worktotal∙km-1, Elevationgain, eTRIMP and eTRIMP∙km-1) were higher in U23 compared to professionals (p=0.002-0.014). Climbing performance metrics were significantly predicted by prior workload and intensity measures for Cat 1 and 2 (R2=0.27-0.89, p≤0.001-0.030) but not Cat 3. These findings reveal that climbing performance in professional road cycling is influenced by climb categorization as well as prior workload and intensity measures. Combined, these findings suggest that Cat 1 and 2 climbing performance could be predicted from workload and intensity measures.

Power profiling and the power-duration relationship in cycling: a narrative review.

Emerging trends in technological innovations, data analysis and practical applications have facilitated the measurement of cycling power output in the field, leading to improvements in training prescription, performance testing and race analysis. This review aimed to critically reflect on power profiling strategies in association with the power-duration relationship in cycling, to provide an updated view for applied researchers and practitioners. The authors elaborate on measuring power output followed by an outline of the methodological approaches to power profiling. Moreover, the deriving a power-duration relationship section presents existing concepts of power-duration models alongside exercise intensity domains. Combining laboratory and field testing discusses how traditional laboratory and field testing can be combined to inform and individualize the power profiling approach. Deriving the parameters of power-duration modelling suggests how these measures can be obtained from laboratory and field testing, including criteria for ensuring a high ecological validity (e.g. rider specialization, race demands). It is recommended that field testing should always be conducted in accordance with pre-established guidelines from the existing literature (e.g. set number of prediction trials, inter-trial recovery, road gradient and data analysis). It is also recommended to avoid single effort prediction trials, such as functional threshold power. Power-duration parameter estimates can be derived from the 2 parameter linear or non-linear critical power model: P(t) = W'/t + CP (W'-work capacity above CP; t-time). Structured field testing should be included to obtain an accurate fingerprint of a cyclist's power profile.